MORE LIES&PROMISES AND FALSE COMPLIMENTARY CONVIVIALTY

From Thomas Jefferson to Indian Nations, 10 January 1809

Jan. 10. 1809.

“My Children Chiefs of the Wiandots, Ottawas, Chippeways, Poutewatamies & Shawanese.

This is the first time I have had the pleasure of seeing the distinguished men of our neighbors the Wiandots, Ottawas & Chippeways at the Seat of our Government. I welcome you to it as well as the Poutewatamies & Shawanese and thank the great Spirit for having conducted you hither in safety & health. I take you and your people by the hand and salute you as my Children; I consider all my red children as forming one family with the whites, born in the same land with them, and bound to live like brethren, in peace, friendship, & good neighborhood. in former times, my Children, we were not our own Masters but were governed by the English. Then we were often at war with our red neighbors. ill blood was raised, & kept up, between us, and in the war, in which we threw off the English Government, many of the red people, mistaking their brothers & real friends, took side with the English against us: & it was not, till many years after we made peace with the English, that the treaty of Grenville closed our last wars with our Indian Neighbors. from that time, My Children, we have looked on you as a part of ourselves and have cherished your prosperity as our own. We saw that three things were wasting away your numbers to nothing. that the intemperate use of ardent Spirits produced poverty, troubles & murders among you. Your wars with one another were lessening your numbers: & attachment to the hunter life, after game had nearly left you, produced famine sickness & deaths among you in the Scarce Season of every year. It has been our endeavor therefore, like your true fathers and brothers to withhold strong liquors from you, to keep you at peace with one another, & to encourage, & aid you in the culture of the earth, & raising domestic Animals, to take place of the wild ones. this we have done, my Children, because we are your friends, & wish you well. if we feared you, if we were your enemies, we should have furnished you plentifully with whisky, let the men destroy one another in perpetual wars, & the women & children waste away for want of food and remain insensible that they could raise it out of the Earth.

We have been told, my Children, that some of you have been doubting whether we or the English were your truest friends. what do the English do for you? they furnish you with plenty of whiskey, to keep you in idleness, drunkenness, & poverty; and they are now exciting you to join them in war against us, if war should take place between them and us. But we tell you to stay at home in quiet, to take no part in quarrels which do not concern you. the English are now at war with all the world but us, and it is not yet known whether they will not force us also into it. they are Strong on the water, but weak on the land. We live on the land, & we fear them not. we are able to fight our own battles; therefore, we do not ask you to Spill your blood in our quarrels: much less do we wish to be forced to Spill it with our own hands. you have travelled through our Country from the Lakes to the tide waters. You have seen our numbers in that direction: and were you to pass along the Sea Shore, you would find them much greater. you know the English numbers, their Scattered forts and String of people, along the borders of the Lakes & the St. Lawrence how long do you think it will take us to sweep them out of the Country?—&, when they are swept away, what is to become of those who join them in their war against us? My Children, if you love the land in which you were born, if you wish to inhabit the earth which covers the bones of your fathers, take no part in the war between the English & us, if we should have war. never will we do an unjust Act towards you. On the contrary we wish to befriend you in every possible way. but the tribe which shall begin an unprovoked war against us will extirpate from the Earth, or drive to such a distance, as that they shall never again be able to strike us. I tell you these things My Children, not to make you afraid. I know you are brave men & therefore cannot fear. but you are also wise men, & prudent men. I say it therefore, that, in your wisdom & prudence, you may look forward. that you may go to the graves of your fathers and say ‘fathers shall we abandon you?’ that you may look in the faces of your wives & children & ask ‘shall we expose these our own flesh & blood to perish from want in a distant country and have our race & name extinguished from the face of the Earth’?. think of these things my Children, as wise men, & as men loving their fathers, their wives & children & the name & memory of their Nation. I repeat that we will never make an unjust act towards you. On the contrary we wish you to live in peace, to increase in numbers, to learn to labor, as we do, and furnish food for your increasing numbers, when the game shall have left you. we wish to see you possessed property, & protecting it by regular laws. in time you will be as we are; you will become one people with us; your blood will mix with ours; & will spread, with ours, over this great Island. hold fast then, my Children, the Chain of friendship, which binds us together; & join us in keeping it forever bright & unbroken. —

I invited you to come here, my Children, that you might hear, with your own ears, the words of your father; that you might see, with your own eyes, the sincere dispositions of the U.S. towards you. in your journey to this place you have seen great numbers of your white brothers; you have been received by them as brothers, have been treated kindly & hospitably, & you have seen & can tell your people that their hearts are now sincerely with you. This is the first time I have ever addressed your Chiefs, in person, at the Seat of Government. It will also be the last. sensible that I am become too old to watch over the extensive concerns of the Seventeen States & their territories, I requested my fellow Citizens to permit me to retire to live with my family and to choose another President for themselves, and father for you. they have done so; and in a short time, I shall retire & resign into his hands the care of your and our Concerns. be assured, my Children; that he will have the same friendly dispositions towards you which I have had, & that you will find in him a true and affectionate father. Indeed, this is now the disposition of all our people towards you. They look upon you as brethren, born in the same land, & having the same interests. Tell your people therefore, to entertain no uneasiness on account of this change; for there will be no change as to them. deliver to them my Adieux, and my prayers to the Great Spirit for their happiness. tell them that, during my administration, I have held their hand fast in mine; & that I will put it into the hand of their New father, who will hold it as I have done.—”

Th: Jefferson

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The purpose of the treaty was to eliminate the support of the French by Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley in exchange for some of their lands being returned to them; also in exchange, the British Government promised to recognize Indian tribes to be permitted to hunt on the grounds along the Ohio River valley and refrain from establishing settlements west of the Allegheny Mountains (which belonged to the Iroquois and Algonquian tribes originally). All agreements were mutually granted and respected by each tribe and colonists; the Native tribes even received a payout of one thousand Spanish dollars to procure the whole deal! Did this treaty last? Of course not. The tribes were promised “eternal possession” for lands west of the Appalachians; but a few tears later, in 1763, the British Crown procured the Proclamation Line of 1763, which restricted any settlements in that area that this treaty originally “guaranteed”.

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Shingas (1740-1763?) was a noted chief of the Turkey Clan of the Delaware; he was also a brother of King (Tamaqua) Beaver (an immensely famous chief as well in our region).  Many authorities (chiefs) of the Ohio Valley region proclaimed him a nephew of the infamous Sassoonan, another famous chief of the region. Shingas carved a bloodthirsty reputation in the Allegheny Mountains and the Ohio valley region, and he had reason to.

Shingas did become a king in 1752 (this claim was announced at Logstown by Tanacharison, a well-known chief in the Beaver County and surrounding areas), a time when Beaver County was not in existence, but had accrued a bloody and violent history between White Settlers and various Iroquois and Algonquin tribes. The direct quote from Chief Tannacharison is as follows, “that is our right to give you a King” to represent the Lenape in “all publick Business” between the Lenape, the Six Nations, and the British.” Tanacharison announced to the Virginia commissioners, “we have given our Cousins, the Delawars, a King, who lives there, we desire you will look upon him as a Chief of that Nation.” Shingas was absent from the treaty conference, so Tamaqua (Shingas brother, King Beaver) “stood proxy for his brother and was presented with a lace hat and jacket and suit.” In another preserved journal by the Virginia Commissioners, the following is recorded verbatim, “The Journal of the Virginia Commissioners to this treaty, under date of June 11th, describes his coronation as follows: “Afterwards the Half King [Tanacharison] spoke to the Delawares: ‘Nephews, you received a speech last year from your brother, the Governor of Pennsylvania and from us, desiring you to choose one of the wisest councellors, and present him to us for a King. As you have not done it, we let you know it is our right to give you a King, and we think proper to give you Shingas for your King, whom you must look upon as your head chief, and with whom all public business must be transacted between you and your brethren, the English. On which the Half King put a laced hat on the head of The Beaver, who stood proxy for his brother, Shingas, and presented him with a rich jacket and a suit of English clothes, which had been delivered to the Half King by the Commissioners for that ²purpose.” 

The trouble and conflict with white settlers escalated with the building of Fort Pitt. (Present day Point State Park in Downtown Pittsburgh.) The struggle to control this area of Beaver and Allegheny County was between Great Britain and France and the Six Nations of the Iroquois (“Haudenosaunee”, Iroquois name pronounced HOH-din-oh-SHOH-nee); at this time, the Delaware Tribes (Delaware were Algonquian Indians) were looked upon as inferior to the Iroquois who claimed to the French and English that they owned the lands. (This would include ALL present-day Allegheny and Beaver and Butler County.) Shingas, however, did not recognize Iroquois authority; consequently, he began his own raids on the white settlements established in the areas, even as far as Virginia. Shingas and a band of loyal followers took part in a dark and bloody campaign throughout all the frontier country of Pennsylvania, carving out a fearless and violent reputation as a warrior and zealous Delaware Indian. Even declining to assist George Washington at Fort Necessity, Shingas continued his terrible campaign through regions of Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Beaver County, Butler County, and even as far as Crawford County. ³ However, there is mention of him by Washington himself in his journal in 1753 when he travelled to the French forts in the region; he discovered Shingas residing in what is now McKees Rocks near present-day Pittsburgh and commented on the following, “About two miles from this [the Forks of the Ohio], on the Southeast side of the River at ‘a place where the Ohio Company intended to erect a fort, lives Shingas, King of the Delawares. We called upon him to invite him to council at the Logs Town. Shingas attended us to the Logs Town, where we arrived between sun setting and dark on the 25th day after I left Williamsburg.” Shingas did participate in the discussions at Logstown and then left for the villages of Venango and Le Beouf.

In 1754, we discover Shingas again in the history of our area. He met with two diplomats by the names of George Croghan and Andrew Montour at Logstown. For this occasion, Shingas was joined by two other famous chiefs by the names of “Delaware George” and “Scarouady”. The primary purpose for Shingas was to present a requisition to the Governor of Virginia to consider building a “strong-house” at the forks of the Ohio River; just before the closing of these proceedings, Shingas rose from his place and spoke the following, “Brother Onas: I am glad to hear all our people here are of one mind. It is true I live on the river side, which is the French road, and I assure you by these strings of wampum [gave them strings of wampum] that I will neither go down or up, but will remove nearer to my brethren, the English, where I can keep our women and children safe from the enemy.” Shingas did not keep this promise; he sided with the French. After Braddock’s defeat, Shingas continued his bloody and ruthless reputation on the Ohio Valley frontier in unfathomable ways. During much of the French and Indian War, he spent his time convincing other tribes of the region such as Kittanning, Logstown and Sawkunk (a now famous Indian village near present-day Bridgewater/Rochester) to indulge in resisting against any white settler arriving in the region.

Unsurprisingly, the white settlers in our region were not able to effectively extinguish Shingas hit and raid tactics that he and his warriors were infamously known for. As his reputation grew, the colonial governments of both Pennsylvania and Virginia offered a substantial reward for his capture or death. His two most famous acts of cruelty are the burning of Fort McCord and the capture and killing of members of the Knox and Martin families. In one incident, some members of the families were sold like cattle to other frontiersman for rum or blankets.

However, it was during the Kittanning Expedition that Shingas mystically vanished from history. This incursion of the French and Indian War left the Delaware’s without an official residence in the area, forcing them to relocate to present day Ohio. According to some unverifiable accounts, Shingas may have contracted smallpox and met his end. Still, some say he was killed by White Settlers while on route to Ohio, as his fearless and bloody reputation had finally caught up with him. In another account, his brother, King Beaver (remember, whom the town of Beaver is referred), may have manipulated his brother into moving out of the area as they did not agree on how White Settlers should be dealt with. There is no evidence in existence at this time of how Shingas met his end. In the last of authentic historical narrative, Shingas is mentioned in taking part in the siege of Fort Pitt in July of 1763; from this incident, he is mentioned no longer.

Shingas bloodthirsty and despicable reputation entertains a higher level of indifference among scholars and local historians; however, his legacy on the Pennsylvania/Ohio frontier is legendary. He is, perhaps, the first ‘outlaw’ in our area; albeit, to his people, he was a man of intense loyalty, courage, and compassion who protected them from the expansion and settlements of White Authority.

On a final note, although Shingas and King Beaver are ‘credited’ as being Kings, it is highly unlikely, because of the Delaware traditions in place at the time, which could not have made them so. To be a TRUE KING, you had to be a ‘member’ of the ‘Turtle Clan’ and not the ‘Turkey Clan’ in order to be a TRUE KING of the DELAWARE. Does this tarnish the brothers’ reputations or their contributions to the development of our area? I think not. 

In closing, I think it proper to include of what we have of Shingas reputation as a warrior. It is from Reverend Heckewelder (A missionary of the Moravian Church in Pennsylvania), one of the LEADING authorities on Delaware Indian history and custom. He wrote the following on Shingas:

“Were his war exploits on record, they would form an interesting document, though a shocking one. Conococheague, Big Cove, Sherman’s Valley, and other settlements along the frontier, felt his strong arm sufficiently that he was a bloody warrior, cruel his treatment, relentless his fury. His person was small, but in a point of courage and activity, savage prowess, he was said to have never been exceeded by anyone.”

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A sad and powerful example of how broken promises and dismantled treaties commenced since the founding of our nation predicated to the extinction of another. 

To the Seneca Chiefs

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While there are many tales of capture and killings all along the areas of the Ohio Valley, few are remembered or even recorded. However, the ones that do survive arrange a puzzle of clear vision and the brutality that was once replete in our area. One of these tales is about an early settler by the name of John Carpenter.

Before one can appreciate the tale, it must be paramount to the reader to comprehend the precise term, in this specific area, what is known as Indian Summer; it is to be understood because this is the time of year whence this tale takes place. 

During the severely cold winter months, Indian activity in the area was considerably inactive; the snow and bitter cold could not permit much retaliation or attacks of Indians on white settlers. This proved to be the exact on the side of White Settlers as well. Forest travel was strictly to those who possessed impressive knowledge of deer trails and trusted companions of a certain area. As a result, most Indians in the area would rely on fishing and consumption of dry meat and vegetables to get through the winter months. Subsequently, at various periods in the height of winter, a favorably warm spell would break the merciless cold; it was rightfully called the “Indians Summer.” Early in the month of March, a warm spell entered the landscape of the frigid cold; this produced activity and an advantage to any Indian seeking food or supplies for himself or his family. It was at this time that the legendary John Carpenter of the Ohio Valley found himself in serious danger. Sometime during the night in early March, while attending to his horses in his barn, a commotion was outside, and Mr. Carpenter found himself in the unwanted confrontation of Wyandots. Here they took Carpenter prisoner, along with his two horses; they made him cross the Ohio River, along with his horses, nearly drowning in the frozen water as it was rising in depth because of the early warm thaws from the higher temperatures. Travelling towards the Muskingum River, he entered a Moravian town where the Indians had established peaceful villages with their neighbors. By this time, John Carpenter was not a man without reputation and his captors knew this. In an unsuccessful attempt, they tried to convince him to join them in their quest to fight the British; he played along as well as any astute white settler would do. As some horses made their way in any fashion they pleased in the village, Carpenter secured his escape by riding one out of the village and back towards home; however, this is only one story of his magnificent legacy. 

Before he became a well-known Indian fighter, John Carpenter was a soldier in the French and Indian War serving under the command of Colonel George Washington in the Virginia Regiment. Washington said of him “that as he could not run fast, the British or Indians would eventually get him”; the Indians would get him, not once, but twice, and they could not kill him; he fought along the entire Ohio Valley region before establishing the numerous settlements that bear his name. After his service in this war, Mr. Carpenter found his service in the military again, this time in the American Revolution. He served as a Quartermaster Sergeant (a non-commissioned officer) for three years being discharged in 1781. However, his first duty in the American Revolution was, once again, under the command of now General George Washington, at Valley Forge; from there, he joined with Washington in pursuit of the British across New Jersey withdrawing from Philadelphia; this movement led him into the Battle of Monmouth where Washington fought the British to a famous standstill. During his time in service during the American Revolution, he resided in western Pennsylvania which was claimed by the state of Virginia; it is believed he owned a farm and cabin in Washington County, Pennsylvania. Mr. Carpenter had ties with Fort McIntosh, Fort Pitt in Pittsburgh as well as maybe even Logstown because of his connections to the Indians of the region. It is noted in marriage licenses of the time that Mr. Carpenter was married to an Iroquois women of considerable reputation and character as a result of a skirmish in a camp he was residing in at the time. In later years, his wife saved his life during a savage Indian attack on their farm where he was shot and was almost killed by a band of Wyandots. He lived out his final years in Ohio passing away in 1806. Over the years, there continued to be lavish and exaggerated rumors on this man, but he still continues to garner the admiration and attention of story tellers and historians to this day. 

“Let us picture the man we are here to honor. According to tradition, he was a short-legged, stocky man, who they said, could not run very fast, that the Indians would surely capture him. But he was not the kind of man who ran; he was the kind who stayed to fight. He was an Ohio Pioneer, and those two words are enough to distinguish any man. But there were many more: John Carpenter began his fight for liberty and for the establishment of our Republic soon after he came to Virginia from England in 1750. He was a neighbor of George Washington and he served under him, both in the French and Indian War and in the American Revolution. In the later years of the Revolution he was sent west of the Alleghenies to assist the settlers fighting the Indians and the British. This, no doubt, gave him a liking for the Ohio Country. So in 1781, he brought his family and settled at the mouth of Short Creek, which flows into the Ohio River near the present site of Warrenton, in Jefferson County. There he built a cabin and established a fort, the site is still known as Carpenter’s Fort.” ⁴

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Although the treaty was supposed to address issues with two earlier treaties, the 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the 1785 Treaty of Fort McIntosh, it largely reiterated the earlier terminology, with minor changes. The treaty failed to address the most important grievances of the Indigenous nations, namely, the unauthorized settlement of White Americans in the Firelands region of the Western Reserve, which extended into the territory set aside for the Indigenous nations. 

The treaty failed to stop the violence and pillage in the region caused by the appropriation of White Americans onto territories held by Indigenous nations. Many other Indian nations were infuriated at the treaty because they perceived the treaty to force land relinquishments and foreign hegemony over. The failure of the treaty led to an escalation of the hostilities as the Western Confederacy resisted the United States invasion. The war would continue for six years and see thousands killed, including some of the worst defeats in U.S. Army history, until the United States defeated the Indigenous alliance at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. This treaty is just another example of the countless other treaties struck with Indian nations and tribes: A LIE. 

Articles of a Treaty Made at Fort Harmar, between Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio, and Commissioner Plenipotentiary of the United States of America, for removing all Causes of Controversy, regulating Trade, and settling Boundaries, with the India Nations in the Northern Department, of the one Part; and the Sachems and Warriors of the Wiandot, Delaware, Ottawa, Chippewa, Pattawatima and Sac Naions, on the other Part.

ARTICLE I.

WHEREAS the United States in Congress assembled, did, by their Commissioners George Rogers Clark, Richard Butler, and Arthur Lee, Esquires, duly appointed for that purpose, at a treaty holden with the Wiandot, Delaware, Ottawa and Chippewa nations, at Fort M’lntosh, on the twenty-first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-five, conclude a peace with the Wyandots, Delawares, Ottawas and Chippewas, and take them into their friendship and protection: And whereas at the said treaty it was stipulated that all prisoners that had been made by those nations, or either of them, should be delivered up to the United States. And whereas the said nations have now agreed to and with the aforesaid Arthur St. Clair, to renew and confirm all the engagements they had made with the United States of America. at the before mentioned treaty except so far as are altered by these presents. And there are now in the possession of some individuals of these nations, certain prisoners, who have been taken by others not in peace with the said United States, or in violation of the treaties subsisting between the United States and them; the said nations agree to deliver up all the prisoners now in their hands (by what means soever they may have come into their possession) to the said Governor St. Clair, at Fort Harmar, or in his absence, to the officer commanding there, as soon as conveniently may be; and for the true performance of this agreement, they do now agree to deliver into his hands, two persons of the Wyandot Nation, to be retained in the hands of the United States as hostages, until the said prisoners are restored; after which they shall be sent back to their nation.

ARTICLE 2

And whereas at the before mentioned treaty it was agreed between the United States and said nations, that a boundary line should be fixed between the lands of those nations and the territory of the United States; which boundary is as follows, viz.-Beginning at the mouth of Cayahoga river, and running thence up the said river to the portage between that and the Tuscarawa branch of Muskingum, then down the said branch to the forks at the crossing-place above fort Lawrence, thence westerly to the portage on that branch of the Big Miami river which runs into the Ohio, at the mouth of which branch the fort stood which was taken by the French in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and fifty-two, then along the said portage to the Great Miami or Omie river, and down the south-east side of the same to its mouth; thence along the southern shore of Lake Erie to the mouth of Cayahoga, where it began. And the said Wyandot, Delaware, Ottawa and Chippewa Nations, for and in consideration of the peace then granted to them by the said United States, and the presents they then received, as well as of a quantity of goods to the value of six thousand dollars, now delivered to them by the said Arthur St. Clair, the receipt whereof they do hereby acknowledge, do by these presents renew and confirm the said boundary line; to the end that the same may remain as a division line between the lands of the United States of America, and the lands of said nations, forever. And the undersigned Indians do hereby in their own names and the names of their respective nations and tribes, their heirs and descendants, for the consideration above-mentioned, release, quit claim, relinquish and cede to the said United States, all the land east, south and west of the lines above described, so far as the said Indians formerly claimed the same; for them the said United States to have and to hold the same in true and absolute propriety forever.

ARTICLE III.

The United States of America do by these presents relinquish and quit claim to the said nations respectively, all the lands lying between the limits above described, for them the said Indians to live and hunt upon, and otherwise to occupy as they shall see fit: But the said nations or either of them, shall not be at liberty to sell or dispose of the same, or any part thereof, to any sovereign power, except the United States; nor to the subjects or citizens of any other sovereign power, nor to the subjects or citizens of the United States.

ARTICLE IV

It is agreed between the said United States and the said nations, that the individuals of said nations shall be at liberty to hunt within the territory ceded to the United States, without hindrance or molestation, so long as they demean themselves peaceably, and offer no injury or annoyance to any of the subjects or citizens of the said United States.

ARTICLE V

It is agreed that if any Indian or Indians of the nations before mentioned, shall commit a murder or robbery on any of the citizens of the United States, the nation or tribe to which the offender belongs, on complaint being made, shall deliver up the person or persons complained of, at the nearest post of the United States; to the end that he or they may be tried, and if found guilty, punished according to the laws established in the territory of the United States north-west of the river Ohio, for the punishment of such offences, if the same shall have been committed within the said territory; or according to the laws of the State where the offence may have been committed, if the same has happened in any of the United States. In like manner, if any subject or citizen of the United States shall commit murder or robbery on any Indian or Indians of the said nations, upon complaint being made thereof, he or they shall be arrested, tried and punished agreeable to the laws of the state or of the wherein the offence was committed; that nothing may interrupt the peace and harmony now established between the United States and said nations.

And whereas the practice of stealing horses has prevailed very much, to the great disquiet of the citizens of the United States, and if persisted in, cannot fail to involve both the United States of America and the Indians in endless animosity, it is agreed that it shall be put an entire stop to on both sides; nevertheless, should some individuals, in defiance of this agreement, and of the laws provided against such offences, continue to make depredations of that nature, the person convicted thereof shall be punished with the utmost severity the laws of the respective states, or territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio, where the offence may have been committed, will admit of: And all horses so stolen, either by the Indians from the citizens or subjects of the United States, or by the citizens or subjects of the United States from any of the Indian nations, may be reclaimed, into whose possession soever they may have passed, and, upon due proof, shall be restored; any sales in market overt. notwithstanding. And the civil magistrates in the United States respectively, and in the territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio, shall give all necessary aid and protection to Indians claiming such stolen horses.

ARTICLE VI

And whereas the practice of stealing horses has prevailed very much, to the great disquiet of the citizens of the United States, and if persisted in, cannot fail to involve both the United States of America and the Indians in endless animosity, it is agreed that it shall be put an entire stop to on both sides; nevertheless, should some individuals, in defiance of this agreement, and of the laws provided against such offences, continue to make depredations of that nature, the person convicted thereof shall be punished with the utmost severity the laws of the respective states, or territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio, where the offence may have been committed, will admit of: And all horses so stolen, either by the Indians from the citizens or subjects of the United States, or by the citizens or subjects of the United States from any of the Indian nations, may be reclaimed, into whose possession soever they may have passed, and, upon due proof, shall be restored; any sales in market overt. notwithstanding. And the civil magistrates in the United States respectively, and in the territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio, shall give all necessary aid and protection to Indians claiming such stolen horses.

ARTICLE VII

Trade shall be opened with the said nations, and they do hereby respectively engage to afford protection to the persons and property oft such as may be duly licensed to reside among them I or the purposes of trade, and to their agents, factors and servants; but no person shall be permitted to reside at their towns, or at their hunting camps, as a trader, who is not furnished with a license for that purpose, under the hand and seal of the Governor of the territory of the United States north-west of the Ohio, for the time being, or under the hand and seal of one of his deputies for the management of Indian affairs; to the end that they may not be imposed upon in their traffic. And if any person or persons shall intrude themselves without such licence; they promise to apprehend him or them, and to bring them to the said Governor, or one of his deputies, for the purpose before mentioned, to be dealt with according to law: And that they may be defended against persons who might attempt to forge such licenses, they further engage to give information to the said Governor, or one of his deputies, of the names of all traders residing among them from time to time, and at least once in every year.

ARTICLE VIII

Should any nation of Indians meditate a war against the United States, or either of them, and the same shall come to the knowledge of the before mentioned nations, or either of them, they do hereby engage to give immediate notice thereof to the Governor, or in his absence to the officer commanding the troops of the United States at the nearest post. And should any nation with hostile intentions against the United States, or either of them, attempt to pass through their country, they will endeavor to prevent the same, and in like manner give information of such attempt to the said Governor or commanding officer, as soon as possible, that all causes of mistrust and suspicion may be avoided between them and the United States: In like manner the United States shall give notice to the said Indian nations, of any harm that may be meditated against them, or either of them, that shall come to their knowledge; and do all in their power to hinder and prevent the same, that the friendship between them may be uninterrupted.

ARTICLE IX

If any person or persons, citizens or subjects of the United States, or any other person not being an Indian, shall presume to settle upon the lands confirmed to the said nations, he and they shall be out of the protection of the United States; and the said nations may punish him or them in such manner as they see fit.

ARTICLE X

The United States renew the reservations heretofore made in the before mentioned treaty at Fort M’lntosh, for the establishment of trading posts, in manner and form following; that is to say: Six miles square at the mouth of the Miami or Omie river; six miles square at the portage upon that branch of the Miami which runs into the Ohio; six miles square upon the lake Sandusky where the fort formerly stood; and two miles square upon each side the Lower Rapids on Sandusky river, which posts, and the lands annexed to them, shall be for the use and under the government of the United States.

ARTICLE XI

The post at Detroit, with a district of land beginning at the mouth of the river Rosine, at the west end of lake Erie, and running up the southern bank of said river six miles; thence northerly, and always six miles west of the strait. until it strikes the lake St. Clair, shall be reserved for the use of the United States.

ARTICLE XII

In like manner the post at Michilimackinac, with its dependencies, and twelve miles square about the same, shall be reserved to the sole use of the United States.

ARTICLE XIII

The United States of America do hereby renew and confirm the peace and friendship entered into with the said nations, at the treaty before mentioned, held at Fort M’Intosh; and the said nations again acknowledge themselves, and all their tribes, to be under the protection of the said United States, and no other power whatever.

ARTICLE XIV

The United States of America do also receive into their friendship and protection, the nations of the Pattiwatimas and Sacs; and do hereby establish a league of peace and amity between them respectively; and all the articles of this treaty, so far as they apply to these nations, are to be considered as made and concluded in all, and every part, expressly with them and each of them.

ARTICLE XV

And whereas in describing the boundary before mentioned, the words, if strictly constructed, would carry it from the portage on that branch of the Miami, which runs into the Ohio, over to the river Au Glaize; which was neither the intention of the Indians, nor of the Commissioners; it is hereby declared, that the line shall run from the said portage directly to the first fork of the Miami river, which is to the southward and eastward of the Miami village, thence down the main branch of the Miami river to the said village, and thence down that river to Lake Erie, and along the- margin of the lake to the place of beginning.

Done at Fort Harmar, on the Muskingum, this ninth day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine.

In witness whereof, the parties have hereunto interchangeably set their hands and seals.

Arthur St. Clair,
Peoutewatamie, his x mark,
Konatikina, his x mark,

Sacs:
Tepakee, his x mark
Kesheylva, his x: mark,

Chippewas:
Mesass, his x mark
Paushquash, his x mark,
Pawasicko, his x mark,

Ottawas:
Wewiskia, his x mark,
Neagey, his x mark,

Pattawatimas:
Windigo, his x mark,
Wapaskea, his x mark,
Nequea, his x mark,

Delawares:
Captain Pipe, his x mark,
Wingenond, his x mark
Pekelan, his x mark,
Teataway, his x mark,

Chippewas:
Nanamakeak, his x mark
Wetenasa, his x mark,
Soskene, his x mark,
Pewanakum, his x mark,

Wyandots:
Teyandatontec, his x mark
Cheyawe, his x mark,
Doueyenteat, his x mark
Tarhe, his x mark,
Terhataw, his x mark,
Datasay, his x mark
Maudoronk, his x mark,
Skahomat, his x mark,

In presence of-

Jos. Harmar, lieutenant-colonel, eommandant, First U. S. Regiment, and brigadier-general by brevet,
Richard Butler,
Jno. Gibson
Will. McCurdey, captain
E. Denny, ensign, First U. S. Regiment,
F. A. Hartshorn. ensign.
Robt. Thompson, ensign, First U. S. Regiment,
Frans. Muse, ensign J. Williams, jr.,
Wm. Wilson,
Joseph Nicholas James Rinkin.

Be it remembered, That the Wyandots have laid claim to the lands that were granted to the Shawanese, at the treaty held at the Miami, and have declared, that as the Shawanese have been so restless, and caused so much trouble, both to them and to the United States, if they will not now be at peace, they will dispossess them, and take the country into their own hands; for that the country is theirs of right, and the Shawanese are only living upon it by their permission. They further lay claim to all the country west of the Miami boundary, from the village to the lake Erie, and declare that it is now under their management and direction.

SEPARATE ARTICLE.

Whereas the Wyandots have represented, that within the reservation from the river Rosine along the Strait, they have two villages from which they cannot with any convenience remove; it is agreed, that they shall remain in possession of the same, and shall not be in any manner disturbed therein.

SEPARATE ARTICLE.

Should a robbery or murder be committed by an Indian or Indians of the said nations upon the citizens or subjects of the United States or any of them, or by the citizens or subjects of the United States or any of them, upon any Indian or Indians of the said nations, the parties accused of the same shall be tried, and, if found guilty, be punished according to the laws of the state, or of the territory of the United States, as the case may be, where the same was committed; and should any horses be stolen, either by the Indians of the said nations from the citizens or subjects of the United States or any of them, or by any of the said citizens and subjects from any of the said Indians, they may be reclaimed, into whose possession soever they may have come; and, upon due proof, shall be restored, any sales in open market notwithstanding. And the parties convicted shall be punished with the utmost severity the laws will admit; and the said nations engage to deliver the parties that may be accused of their nations of either of the before-mentioned crimes, at the nearest post of the United States, if the crime was committed within the territory of the United States, or to the civil authority of the States, if it shall have happened within any of the United States.

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Measuring approximately 5 inches in length, 3 inches in width, and 0.5 inches thick, the Cincinnati Tablet is made from a very fine-grained sandstone and is undoubtedly the most iconic prehistoric artifact yet found in downtown Cincinnati. It was recovered during the fall of 1841 when a grading team was removing a complex of human-made burial mounds near Fifth and Mound Streets, which today is a large UPS facility just west of Interstate 75. While removing the mound complex in preparation for road construction, workers began to uncover numerous exotic artifacts, including thin copper cut-outs, well made lithic tools, galena ore, mica, shell, bone and copper beads, as well as perforated bear canine pendants, large marine shells, and two polished bone awls or perforators.

The discovery of the Cincinnati Tablet quickly drew an enormous amount of interest and was the first “Adena Tablet” described by science. Within a few weeks of its recovery, the Cincinnati Tablet was exhibited at a meeting of the Western Academy of Natural Sciences. Soon thereafter, it was featured in the December 12th, 1842, edition of the Cincinnati Gazette, and was later described in the American Pioneer of May, 1843. A few years later, the Cincinnati Tablet was even featured in Squier and Davis’ famous 1848 publication The Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, the very first volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Decades later, interest in the Cincinnati Tablet had not subsided as it was even exhibited in London as part of the 1976 bicentennial tribute to the United States exhibit “Sacred Circles: 2000 Years of North American Indian Art”.

The term “Adena Tablets” refers to a rare type of artifact which has been recovered in contexts that are associated with the Adena culture of the Early Woodland Period (1000-200 B.C.). As many as 13 have been found in Ohio, Kentucky and West Virginia. Tablets are engraved in deep bas-relief and are generally made from fine-grained sandstone, although a few Adena Tablets have been found in other materials, including limestone (Wright tablet), shale (Berlin Tablet) and clay (Gaitskill Tablet 1).

Adena tablets can be engraved on one or both sides and are usually carved with highly stylized zoo-morphs (having the shape of an animal) and curvilinear geometric designs. These are often interpreted as raptorial birds and possibly human shaman motifs dressed in animal regalia and masks. More often than not, images are split down the middle of the stylized geometric designs, perhaps placing a heightened importance on bilateral symmetry.

So far the exact use for the mysterious Adena Tablets is unknown. However, a few have been found with red ochre residue (mineral used to manufacture paint and dye) on stylized surfaces. This leads some archaeologists to believe that the tablets could have been used as stamps for body or fabric decoration. It may also be that the tablets were used for other purposes such as imprinting on pottery or as stenciling aides for tattooing. Several tablets—Cincinnati Tablet included—also have deep grooves opposite the side with curvilinear geometric engravings, which some archaeologists interpret as grooves for sharpening bone awls or needles. The sharpened bone implements could then be used in conjunction with the curvilinear designs to tattoo the designs onto the body permanently.

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The infancy of the American Indian in Beaver County is both sacred and obscure. Many of its residents claim some form of descendance from tribes that inhabited the Ohio Valley as well as Indians from the west and south. It is a well-deserved and ornate heritage that has had both social and civil influence deeply rooted throughout the county. 

One character that created such a discerning and lavish testament is Monacatootha. In 1753 Beaver County was primarily occupied by the French. To terminate their influence and extinguish their political control, the English desperately needed to amalgamate Indian treaties and royal support from the English throne. To achieve this objective, they established well supported common communication, exceedingly lavish “trade” relationships, and military support against the French who were constantly threatening and plundering their occupied territory. To irritate instances further, a young Virginia militia commander, George Washington, was sent to establish cheery and healthy relations with the already hostile Indians who bitterly resented the growing French occupation. Washington met Monacatootha at Logstown (later, Legionville). The Iroquois Confederacy appointed two chiefs to preside over the Indians at Logstown: Monacatootha (over the Shawnees) and Tanacharison (over the Delaware.)

A young and nervous Washington journeyed to the north to meet with high-ranking French commanders and to fully “discuss” the Ohio Valley situation.  After some considerable debate and meaningless attempts at negotiations, the French informed Washington that any Englishmen who attempted to trade or establish routes along the Ohio would be taken prisoner. Fearing for the lives of the men who worked along the banks of the Ohio, the Governor (Dinwiddie) sent Washington back to the area with a band of militia. With nervous energy, the Indians awaited Washington’s return; the French withdrew their forces from Venango, which constituted around a thousand men; however, the French forces far outnumbered the English which ultimately compelled the Indians to side with the French out of fear and desperation. 

Witnessing these venomous actions in horror, Monacatootha, believing this a circumstance of trickery by the French, made it his solemn duty to retaliate and rise to the defense of his new friend (Washington). His raped and burned his entire village, put his people in canoes, and proclaimed them as new members of Washington’s army. The message was candid and tense; to all the remaining Indians in the area that he would not succumb his people to French authority!  Almost every nation of the Iroquois Confederacy was united in peace, but clever actions Monacatootha had undertaken against the white invaders. Even with his people despondent and indignant, Monacatootha took more vindicating actions for the perseverance of his culture and people; he assisted Washington in taking up arms with him at the Battle of Fort Necessity.  Despondent and humiliated, Washington surrendered to the French and returned to Virginia; however, Monacatootha and his people could not return to the Ohio Valley because of full French occupation. But his struggle for the perseverance of his people would not be extinguished. He journeyed to New York to protest the malicious “Wyoming Purchase; Indians were fed alcohol and “signed” away their rights of land ownership over to white authority. As a direct result, the Iroquois Confederacy would not allow any white settlers into the Wyoming Valley. Years and many bloody massacres later, white settlers eventually cultivated these lands with savagery and violence, sadly.

In 1755 General Braddock was sent from England to force the French to abdicate their established influence and locations in the region. But unlike his counterpart, he deeply resented the American Indians and labeled them as ignorant and crude barbarians. Washington was completely incapable of convincing Braddock that he desperately needed the Indians to fight the French; in grave error, he exiled them, but a few. 

Some years later it was discovered that a British officer kept a journal of some of the military excursions of General Braddock which we find a mention of Monacatootha; he wrote: “Monacatootha, as chief of our Indians, being on the advance of the day before, was met by 70 Indians and some French who bound him and were going to kill him. An Indian of his own Nation being among them entreated that he might have his liberty which after some difficulty was granted.”

After deeper inquiry into the journal this officer asserts that the English were nervous and terrified of every “natural” sound that occurred. Not surprisingly, General Braddock refused to listen to any of Monacatootha’s suggestions in impugning French territory or implementing effective combat operations which the Indians had devised over time with their past incursions. As a result, General Braddock was defeated by the French forces (and aided by other Indian tribes who still supported the French) and consequently killed. Some months later, Monacatootha made an arduous and dangerous journey into Delaware Country. He reported his actions to the Pennsylvania Assembly, and they inevitably declared war on the Delaware. Sadly, Monacatootha died in 1757; at the time he was living in Lancaster and was never able to return to his home along the Ohio. In his glorious honor, the borough of Monaca, Pennsylvania, takes his name. 

The contribution and influence of the Native Americans in Beaver County, Pennsylvania, is extensive, though not widely appreciated and known and virtually unspoken of in our schools. Consider the following compilation of names and places associated with our natural relatives: Aliquippa,(related to Queen Aliquippa); Beaver,(possibly named after King Beaver of the Delaware tribe; though this is controversial); Blackhawk,(it was once a village on Lisbon Road; now Ohioville); Chippewa (named after an Indian tribe of the Great Lakes region); Connoquenessing,(the creek); Crow, (Crow’s Run Road); Logstown (a northeastern section of Aliquippa; but it was originally located across the river from Harmony Township); Monaca,(the town, named after Monacatootha); Ohio, (Ohioville Borough and Ohioville Village in Industry and the Ohio River; it is a Seneca name and means “good.”); Raccoon,(Raccoon Creek; it was originally called “raccoon stream” by the Indians); Sewickley, (New Sewickley Township, North Sewickley Township, Big Sewickley Creek; it is a Shawnee name.) How many do you know? 

Here is a video presentation I did this summer on the life and times of Monacatootha overlooking the famous “OH-HEE-O” Ohio River. (The word “OHIO” is a Seneca Indian term that means “good river.”)

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